T cells play a major role in the initiation and regulation of immune responses. For complete activation of T cells to occur, at least two distinct signaling events are required. A first signal is produced by the interaction of T cell receptors (TCR) expressed on T cells with specific antigens (Ag) presented in the context of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules expressed on antigen-presenting cells (APCs). A second (co-stimulation) signal results from the interaction between co-stimulatory ligands expressed on APCs and their corresponding receptors expressed on T cells. A dominant co-stimulation pathway involves the interaction between the CD80 (B7-1 or B7.1) and CD86 (B7-2 or B7.2) ligands expressed on APCs with CD28 and CTLA-4 (also known as CD152) expressed mainly on T cells. CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4) and CD28 serve as receptors for the CD80 and CD86 ligands.
Positive signaling is mediated through the CD28 receptor. Binding of the CD80 and/or CD86 ligand(s) to CD28 lowers the threshold of T cell activation by promoting the formation of immunological synapses (Viola A. et al., Science 283:680-682 (1999)). Additionally, CD28 co-stimulation activates or enhances the production of factors central to T cell proliferation and survival, such as interleukin-2 (IL-2), NF-κB, and Bcl-XL (Norton S. D. et at., J. Immunol. 149:1556-1561 (1992); Vella A. T. et al., J. Immunol. 158: 4714-4720 (1997)). In vivo, CD28-deficient mice are severely immunocompromised and show poor antigen-specific T cell responses (Green, J. M. et al., Immunity 1:501-508 (1994)). T cell anergy or tolerance may result when T cells are activated in the absence of the costimulatory signal.
Negative signaling is mediated through the CTLA-4 receptor. The CD80 and CD86 ligands each bind with high avidity to CTLA-4 and counterbalance immunoproliferative responses derived from CD28 signaling. Potential mechanisms of CTLA-4 signaling include competitive binding of co-stimulatory molecules CD80/CD86 (Masteller, E. M. et al., J. Immunol. 164:5319 (2000)), inhibition of TCR signaling by induction of phosphatases to the immunosynapse (Lee K. M. et al., Science 282:2263 (1998)), and disruption of the immunological synapse (Pentcheva-Hoang T. et al., Immunity 21:401 (2004); Chikuma S. et al., J. Exp. Med. 197:129 (2003); Schneider H. et al., Science 313: 1972 (2006)). In vivo, CTLA-4 deficient mice show profound autoimmune phenotypes characterized by massive tissue infiltration and organ destruction (Waterhouse P. et al., Science 270:985 (1995)).
Therapeutic agents designed to antagonize the CD80/CD86 co-stimulation pathway, such as soluble human CTLA-4-Ig, hold promise for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and disorders. The present invention provides advantageous molecules having improved abilities to modulate or suppress signaling through the CD80/CD86 co-stimulation pathway and methods of using such molecules for selected and differential manipulation of T cell responses. Such molecules are of beneficial use in a variety of applications as discussed in detail below.